linguistic (pragmatic)

Foundation of Linguistics

“PRAGMATICS”

 

BY

GROUP VIII

Name of group:

Afika Usman                                        (2317046)

Rahma Wahida                                     (2316077)

Suci triana putri sy                                (2318101)

Miftahul jannah                                    (2318104)

                                                             

lecturer : Ms. Elsi Paramita, M.Pd

ENGLISH EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

STATE ISLAMIC INSTITUDE OF  BUKITTINGGI (2019/2020)

PREFACE

            With all the praise and thanks to God the Almighty, who has given His love and mercy so that  a paper entitled “pragmatic” can we finish well. The paper is strutured to meet one of the tasks the courses English Language Teaching Curriculum.

            On this occasion, we would like to thank profusely to all those who have helped us in completing the writing ofthis paper, to Absharani Kardena M.Pd as lecturer in English F  ondation of Linguisticfor the support and motivation and also to friends who have contributed their ideas and motivation for writing this paper.

            We are fully aware thet the many flaws in the writing of this paper, in terms of material, technical and presentation material. Therefore, we expect criticism and constructive suggestion to further refine the writing of this paper. Finally, we hope that the writing of this paper can be useful for readers.

Bukittinggi,1 September 2019

The writer

BAB I

INTODUCTION

Pragmatics is the study of what speakers mean, or ‘ speaker meaning’. Concerned with the study of meaning as comunicated by a speaker or writter and interpreted by a listener or readers.

It has, consequently, more to do with the analyss of what people mean by their utterances than what the words or phrases in those utterances might mean by themselves. Pragmatics is the study of speaker meaning.

Paragmatic focusen on conceptual meaning and relationship between word. There are other of meaning that depent more on context and communicative intentions of speaker. Communicative clearly depends on not only recognizing thr meaning of word in an utterance, but recognizing what speaker mean by their utterences. The study of what speaker mean, or ‘speaker meaning’, is called pragmatics.

BAB II

PRAGMATICS

1.      What is pragmatics?

Pragmatics is the study of what speakers mean, or ‘ speaker meaning’. Concerned with the study of meaning as comunicated by a speaker or writter and interpreted by a listener or readers.

It has, consequently, more to do with the analyss of what people mean by their utterances than what the words or phrases in those utterances might mean by themselves. Pragmatics is the study of speaker meaning

2.      Invisible meaning

In many ways, pragmatics is the study of ‘invisible’ meaning, or how we recognize what is meant even when it isn’t actually said or written. In order for that to happen, speakers (or writers) must be able to depend on a lot of shared assumptions and expectations when they try to communicate. The investigation of those assumptions and expectations provides us with some insights into how more is always being communicated than is said. Alternatively, the sign may indicate a place where parking will be carried out by attendants who have been heated.

The words in the sign may allow these interpretations, but we would normally understand that we can park a car in this place, that it’s a heated area, and that there will be an attendant to look after the car.

3.      Context

Context refers to those objects or entities which surround a focal event, in these disciplines typically a communicative event, of some kind. Context is "a frame that surrounds the event and provides resources for its appropriate interpretation".[It is thus a relative concept, only definable with respect to some focal event within a frame, not independently of that frame.

A.    Linguistics Context

            What has been said before in the conversation.

·         Linda came home late yesterday.She thought nobody would notice.

·         If my mom heard you talk like that

B.     Physical Context

Objects surrounding the communication,place and time of the communication,what is going on around and physical context is the setting where the occurs ( includes things like the physical location,the time of day,the noise,level,the wheather, etc).

·         I want that book. Accompanied by pointing

·         Be here at 9:00 tonight.place /time reference

4.      Deixis

Deixis is a technical term (from Greek) for one of the most basic things we do with utterances. It means “pointing via language. Any linguistic form used to accomplish this ‘pointing’ is called a deictic expression.

When you notice a strange object and ask, ‘What’s that?’, you are using a deictic expression (‘that’) to indicate something in the immedate context. Deictic expressions are also sometimes called indexicals. They are among the first forms to be spoken by very young children and can be used to indicate people via person deixis )’me’, ‘you’_, or location via spatial deixis (‘here’, ‘there’, or time via temporal deixis (‘now’, ‘then’).

·         Person Deixis

Person deixis clearly operates on a basic three-part division, exemplified by the pronouns for first person (‘I’), second person (‘you’), and third person (‘he’, ‘she’, or ‘it’). In many languages these deictic categories of speaker, addressee, and other(s) are elaborated with markers of relative social status (for example, addressee with higher status versus addressee with lower status). Expressions which indicate higher status are described as honorifics.

·         Spatial deixis

The concept of distance already mentioned is clearly relevant to spatial deixis, where the relative location of people and things is being indicated. Contemporary English makes use of only two adverbs, ‘here’ and ‘there’, for the basic distinction, but in older texts and in some dialects, a much larger set of deictic expressions can be found.

In considering spatial deixis, however, it is important to remember that location from the speaker’s perspective can be fixed mentally as well as physically.

·         Temporal deixis

The psychological basis of temporal deixis seems to be similar to that of spatial deixis. We can treat temporal events as objects that move toward us (into view) or away from us (out of view). One metaphor used in Neglish is of events coming toward the speaker from the future (for example, ‘the coming week’, ‘the approaching year’) and going away from the speaker to the past for example, ‘in days gone by’, ‘the past week’. We also seem to treat the near or immedaite future as ebing close to utterance time by using a proximal deictic ‘this’, as in ‘this (coming) weekend’ or ‘thi (coming) Thursday’.

5.      Reference

Reference is clearly tied to the speaker’s goals (for example, to identify something) and the speaker’s beliefs (i.e. can the listener be expected to know that particular something?) in the use of language. For successful reference to occur, we must also recognize the role of inference. Because there is no direct relationship between entities and words, the listener’s task is to infer correctly which entity the speaker intends to identify by using a particular referring expression. It is not unusual for people to want to refer to some entity or person without knowing exactly which ‘name’ would be the best word to use. We can even use vague expressions (for example, ‘the blue thing’, ‘that icky stuff’, ‘ol’what’s his name’, ‘the thingamajig’), relying on the listener’s ability to infer what referent we have in mind. Speakers even invent names. There was a man who delivered package to our office whose ‘real’ name I didn’t know, but whose identity I could infer when the secretary referred to him as in.

Example: Mister Aftershave is late today.

6.      Inference

For example, in a restaurant, one waiter can ask another, Where’s the spinach salad sitting? and receive the reply, He’s sitting by the door. If you’re studying linguistics, you might ask someone, Can I look at your Chomsky? and get the response, Sure, it’s on the shelf over there. These examples make it clear that we can use names associated with things (salad) to refer to people, and use names of people (Chomsky) to refer to things. The key process here is called inference. An inference is additional information used bythe listener to create a connection between what is said and what must be meant.

7.      Anaphora

We usually make a distinction between introducing new referents (a puppy) and referring back to them (the puppy, it).

·         We saw a funny home video about a boy washing a puppy in a small bath.

·         The puppy started struggling and shaking and the boy got really wet.

·         When he let go, it jumped out of the bath and ran away.

In this type of referential relationship, the second (or subsequent) referring expression is an example of anaphora (‘referring back’). The first mention is called the antecedent. So, in our example, a boy, a puppy and a small bath are antecedents and The puppy, the boy, he, it and the bath are anaphoric expressions. Anaphora can be defined as subsequent reference to an already introduced entity. Mostly we use anaphora in texts to maintain reference.

8.      Presupposition

A presupposition is something the speaker assumes to be the case prior to making an utterance. Speakers, not sentences, have presuppositions. An entailment is something that logically follows from what is asserted in the utterance. Sentence, not speakers, have entailments.

Characteristic presupposes usually explain as constancy under denial is mean presupposes a pronouncement until constant (constant true) although that pronouncement sentence be denial. There are several type in presupposes that is :

Presupposes factive : usage special express take for be of the opinion truth information that obvious after that.

·         Presupposes non-factive : something of presupposes that assumption notv true. Example of verb like “dream”, “imagine”, and “pretend”.

·         Presupposes lexical : usage special express by speaker take for be of the opinion a another concept (not obvious).

·         Presupposes structural : structural of certain sentence alreadyv analysis as presupposes in a constant manner and conventional that part of structure already truth of assumption.

·         Presupposes counterfactual : that what be of the opinion mustn’t notv true but form be the opposite from true or be the opposite with reality.

One of the tests used to check for the presuppositions underlying sentences involves negating a sentence with a particular presupposition and checking if the presupposition remains true. Whether you say My car is a wreck or the negative version My car is not a wreck, the underlying presupposition (I have a car)  remains true despite the fact that the two sentences have opposite meanings.

This is called the ‘constancy under negation’ test for identifying a presupposition. If someone says, I used to regret marrying him, but I don’t regret marrying him now, the presupposition (I married him) remains constant even though the verb regret changes from affirmative to negative.

Type example presupposes

·         Factive:  I’m regret leave it >> I’m leave it

·         Non-factive : he pretend happily >> he not happily

·         Lexical: he planning escape >> he try to escape

·         Structural: when he die? >> he die

·         Counterfactual:  if I’m not sick >> I’m sick

9.      Speech acts

In attempting to express themselves, people perform actions via those utterances. Utterance can be used to perform the act of ending your employment. However, the actions performed by utterances do not have to be as dramatic or as unpleasant. The action can be quite pleasant, as in he compliment performed, the acknowledgement of thanks, or the expression of surprise. For the examples, “You’re so delicious”, “You’re welcome”, “You’re crazy”.

Actions performed via utterances are generally called speech acts and, in English, are commonly given more specific labels, such as apology, complaint, compliment, invitation, promise, or request.

These descriptive terms for different kinds of speech acts apply to the speaker’s communicative intention in producing an utterance. Speaker and hearer are usually helped in this process by the circumstances surrounding the utterance. These circumstances, including other utterances, are called the speech event. In many ways, it is the nature of the speech event that determines the interpretation of an utterance as performing a particular speech art. If the same utterance can be interpreted as two different kinds of speech act, it also means that there is more to the interpretation of a speech act that can be found in the utterance alone.

10.   Direct and indirect speech acts

There is a simple recognized relationship between the three structural forms (declaratives, interrogative, imperative) and the three general communicative function (statement, interrogative, imperative) and the three general communicative functions (statement, question, command/request).

Whenever there is a direct relationship between a structure and a function, we have a direct speech act.

Whenever there is an indirect relationship between a structure and function, we have an indirect speech art.

Thus, a declarative used to make a statement is a direct speech act, but a declarative used to make a request is an indirect speech act. When it is used to make a statement, it is a direct speech art.

When it is used to make a command/request, it is functioning as an indirect speech art.

Example:

It’s cold outside.

Indirect speech acts are generally associated with greater politeness in English than direct speech art.

We usually use certain syntactic structures with the functions listed beside them in the following table.

·         Structures Functions

Did you eat the pizza?    Interrogative Question

Eat the pizza (please)!   Imperative Command (Request)

You ate the pizza.  Declarative Statement

When an interrogative structure such as Did you . . .?, Are they . . .?or Canwe . . .? is used with the function of a question, it is described as a direct speech act. For example, when we don’t know something and we ask someone to provide the information, we usually produce a direct speech act such as Can you ride a bicycle? Compare that utterance with Can you pass the salt? In this second example, we are not really asking a question about someone’s ability. In fact, we don’t normally use this structure as a question at all. We normally use it to make a request. That is, we are using a syntactic structure associated with the function of a question, but in this case with the function of a request. This is an example of an indirect speech act. Whenever one of the structures in the set above is used to perform a function other than the one listed beside it on the same line, the result is an indirect speech act.

It is possible to have strange effects if one person fails to recognize another person’s indirect speech act. Consider the following scene. A visitor to a city, carrying his luggage, looking lost, stops a passer-by.

·         VISITOR: Excuse me. Do you know where the Ambassador Hotel is?

·         PASSER-BY: Oh sure, I know where it is. (and walks away)

In this scene, the visitor uses a form normally associated with a question (Do you know . . .?), and the passer-by answers that question literally (I know . . .) . That is, the passer-by is acting as if the utterance was a direct speech act instead of an indirect speech act used as a request for directions. Failure to recognize indirect speech acts can lead to some bizarre interactions. The main reason we use indirect speech acts seems to be that actions such as requests presented in an indirect way (Could you open that door for me?) are generally considered to be more gentle or more polite in our society than direct speech acts (Open that door for me!). Exactly why they are considered to be more polite is based on some complex social assumptions.

ü  SPEECH EVENTS

Asking about preconditions technically is not count as making a request, but does allow the hearer to react as if is the request has been made. It is better in most social circumstances, for the speaker to avoid direct imposition via a direct request. When the speaker asks about preconditions, no direct request is made. A speech event is an activity in which participants interact via language in some conventional way to arrive at some outcome. The analysis of speech events is clearly way to studying how more gets communicated than is said.

11.  Politeness

Within interaction, however, there is a more narrowly specified type of politeness at work. Face means the public self-image of a person. It refers to that emotional and social sense of selfs that everyone has and expects everyone else to recognize. Politeness can then be defined as the means employed to show awareness of another person’s face. Showing awareness for another person’s face when that other seems socially distant is often described in terms of respect or deference. If you say something that represents a threat to another person’s self-image, that is called a face-threatening act. For example, if you use a direct speech act to get someone to do something (Give me that paper!), you are behaving as if you have more social power than the other person. If you don’t actually have that social power (e.g. you’re not a military officer or prison warden), then you are performing a face-threatening act. An indirect speech act, in the form associated with a question (Could you pass me that paper?), removes the assumption of social power. You’re only asking if it’s possible. This makes your request less threatening to the other person’s face. Whenever you say something that lessens the possible threat to another’s face, it can be described as a face-saving act.

A.    Face Wants

Within their everyday social interactions, people generally behave as if their expectations concerning their public self-image, or their face wants, will be respected. Alternatively, given the possibility that some action might be interpreted as a threat to another’s face, the speaker can say something to lessen the possible threat. This is called a face saving act. Because it is generally expected that each person will attempt to respect the face wants of others, there are many different ways of performing gace saving acts.

B.     Positive and Negative Politeness

A positive politeness is a face saving act which is concerned with the person’s positive face will tend to show solidarity, emphasize that both speaker want the same thing, and that they have a common goal. For example : ( How about letting me use your pen? ). Meanwhile a negative politeness is a face saving act which is oriented to the person’s negative face will tend to show deference, emphasize the importance of the others time or concerns, and even include an apology for the imposition or interuption. For example : ( I’m sorry to brother you, but can I ask you for a pen or something?).

C.     Strategies

A solidarity strategy will be marked via inclusive terms such as ‘ we ‘ and ‘ let’s ‘. For example :

·         Come on let’s go to the party. Everyone will be there. We’ll have fun. The language associated with a deference strategy emphasizes the speaker’s and the hearer’s independence, marked via an absence of personal claims.

For example :

·         There’s going to be a party, If you can make it. It will be fun.

These general types of strategies are illustrated here via utterances which are actually central to the speech event ( for example, invitation ). Face saving behavior, however, is often at work well before such utterances are produced, in the form of pre-sequences.

D.    Pre-sequences

The basic assumption, from the perspective of politeness, is that face typically at risk when the self needs to accomplish something involving other. The advantage of the pre-request element is that it can be answered either with a ‘ go ahead ‘ response.

 For example ;

 him : Are you busy? (= pre-request)

her : Oh, sorry. (=stop)

Pre-sequences are also commonly used in making invitations.

12.  Negative and Positive Face

A person’s negative face is the need to be independent, to have freedom of action, and not to be imposed on by others. A person’s positive face is the need to be accepted, even liked, by others, to be treated as a member of the same group, and to know that his or her wants to shared by others.

Self and other : say nothing

One way to see the relevance of the relationship between this politeness concepts and language use is to take a single speech event and map out the different interpretation associated with different possible expressions used within that event.

For Example :

·         self : ( Looks in bag )

·         other : ( offer pen ) Here,use this.

Say something : off and on record

REFERENCE

Yule, George.1996. pragmatic. Oxfor: oxford University Press